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Organic Carbon Sources

Renewable Energy Sources

In the discussion of energy, the fundamental concept is that of work which is defined as motion against an opposing force. Energy is the capacity to do work. An object traveling at high speed and impacting on another object can do more work—can drive the object farther against an opposing force—than the same object moving slowly. This contribution to energy, the energy ascribed to motion, is called kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object of mass m traveling at a speed υ is ½ mυ2. An object may also have energy by virtue of its position. An object high above the surface of Earth has more energy (can do more work) than one at its surface. This contribution to the total energy, the energy due to position, is called potential energy. The relation between the object’s position and potential energy depends on the nature of the force field it experiences. The potential energy of a body of mass m at a height h above the surface of Earth is mgh, where g is the acceleration of free fall at the location.

More important for chemistry is the potential energy of one charge near another charge. The Coulomb potential energy of a charge q 1 at a distance r from a charge q2 is given by q1 q2 /4πϵ0 r, where ϵ0 is a fundamental constant called the vacuum permittivity. Energy is also stored in the electromagnetic field in the form of photons. The energy of a photon of radiation of frequency υ is hv, where h is Planck’s constant. Energy is conserved; that is, the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of a single body remains constant provided it is free of external influences (forces). Thus, a falling weight accelerates: The fall implies a reduction of potential energy and the acceleration implies an increase in kinetic energy; the sum, though, is constant.

A generalization (which can be interpreted as an implication) of the conservation of energy is the first law of thermodynamics, which focuses on a property of a many-body system called the internal energy. The internal energy can be interpreted as the sum of all the kinetic and potential energies of all the particles comprising the system. The first law of thermodynamics states that the internal energy of an isolated system is constant. The first law is closely related to the conservation of energy, but it acknowledges the possibility of the transfer of energy as heat, which is outside the reach of mechanics itself. The special theory of relativity states that the mass of a body is a measure of its energy: E = mc2, where c is the speed of light. That is, energy and mass are equivalent and interconvertible. Changes in mass are measurable only when changes in energy are considerable, which in practice commonly means for nuclear processes.

In chemistry we are often concerned with the transfer of energy from one location (e.g., a reaction vessel) to another (the surroundings of that vessel). One mode of transfer is by doing work. For example, work is performed when gases evolved in a reaction push back a movable wall (e.g., a piston) against an opposing force, such as that due to the external atmosphere or a weight to which the piston is attached. Another mode of transfer is as heat. Heat is the transfer of energy that occurs as a result of a temperature difference between a system and its surroundings when the two are separated by a diathermic wall (a wall that allows the passage of energy as heat). A metal wall is diathermic; a thermally insulated wall is not diathermic. Finally, energy may leave a system as electromagnetic radiation, for example as in chemiluminescence—the emission of radiation from matter in energetically excited molecular states produced in the course of a chemical reaction, and as a result of spectroscopic transitions. We may concentrate on the first two modes of transfer, work and heat.

At a molecular level, work is the transfer of energy that makes use of or drives the orderly motion of molecules in the surroundings. The uniform motion of the atoms in a piston driven back by expanding gas is an example of orderly molecular motion. In contrast, heat is the transfer of energy that makes use of or causes disorderly motion in the surroundings. When we say that a chemical reaction gives out heat, we mean that energy is leaving the reaction vessel and stimulating thermal motion (random molecular motion) in the surroundings.

The energy of a chemical system is stored in the potential and kinetic energies of the electrons and atomic nuclei. This stored energy is sometimes referred to as chemical energy; however, this is only a shorthand way of referring to the kinetic and potential energies of all the particles in an element or compound. The internal energy of a system changes when a chemical reaction occurs because the electrons and nuclei settle into different arrangements, as in the change of partnerships of H and O atoms in the reaction 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g). The energy released in a chemical reaction can be transferred to the surroundings (and put to use) in a variety of ways regardless of the manner in which the energy accumulated in the first place. Thus, energy may escape as heat and be used to raise the temperature of the surroundings, including raising the temperature of water that is then employed in a turbine to do work. The energy may also escape as work. The work may be accomplished electrically, as when electrons are driven through an external circuit and used to drive an electric motor.

Atomic nuclei are also centers of energy storage as a result of their internal structures. This energy is released when the nucleons (protons and electrons) undergo rearrangement and thereby change the strength of their interactions. The changes in energy are so great that they give rise to measurable changes of mass. For all chemical processes, the changes in mass accompanying acquisition or loss of energy are totally negligible. 

Modern societies rely on a variety of energy sources to heat homes, propel transportation vehicles, and produce goods for shelter, food, health care, and entertainment. Some of these sources are renewable, whereas others are nonrenewable. A renewable energy source, for example, solar energy, is one that is virtually inexhaustible on the human time scale. A nonrenewable energy source, for example, natural gas, is one that can be either completely consumed (during a lifetime or during several lifetimes) or depleted to such an extent that it is no longer economical for humankind to obtain it. About 80 percent of commercial energy is obtained from three kinds of fuel: oil, coal, and natural gas. When these fuels burn in air they release energy. They are called fossil fuels because they are believed to have formed from the remains of plants and animals subject to heat and pressure for millions of years.

Natural gas is a mixture of methane (CH4), 60 to 90 percent, and smaller amounts of other gaseous hydrocarbons, including ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8), and butane (C4H10). It is valued because it burns hotter and produces less air pollution than other fossil fuels. Complete combustion of a hydrocarbon substance produces carbon dioxide and water. It has been estimated that in 2001, 2.39 trillion cubic meters of natural gas were consumed worldwide, with estimated remaining reserves of 150 trillion cubic meters.

Oil (also referred to as petroleum) is a complex liquid mixture of organic substances, principally of hydrocarbons containing five to sixteen carbon atoms. Most crude oil, once removed from a well, is sent by pipeline to a refinery, where it is distilled to separate it into gasoline, heating oil, diesel oil, and asphalt. The use of catalysts during the refining process increases the yield of gasoline.  

Coal is the most plentiful fossil fuel, comprising 80 percent of the fuel reserves of the United States and 90 percent of those of the world. It is a complex mixture of organic compounds and is anywhere from 30 to 95 percent carbon by mass. It also contains sulfur compounds. When coal is burned, the sulfur is converted to sulfur dioxide, a troublesome air pollutant. The description of coal as being of high quality is based on its having a low sulfur content and high carbon content. Lignite coal (brown coal) has low carbon content and produces the least energy upon combustion (about 15 kJ/g). Bituminous coal (soft coal) has higher carbon content and produces more energy. It is the most extensively used coal. Anthracite coal (hard coal) has the highest carbon and heat content (about 30 kJ/g), but supplies of it are limited in most places. In 2001, 4.41 billion metric tons of coal was consumed worldwide, with estimated reserves of 985 billion metric tons. (A metric ton is 1,000 kilograms [2,679 pounds].)

The combustion of fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide gas, a heat-trapping gas. For the past 250 years (since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution), the increased use of fossil fuels has caused the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide to increase by a factor of about 25 percent. It is now generally believed that this increase has produced higher global temperatures—a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect.

Commercial nuclear power is generated by nuclear fission reactions. When slow-moving neutrons strike nuclei of uranium-235 or plutonium-239, these nuclei are split, releasing energy. The energy is used to heat water and drive a turbine, in turn producing electrical energy. Currently nuclear power supplies more than 16 percent of the world’s total electricity.

A typical nuclear reactor utilizes uranium oxide, whose uranium content is approximately 3 percent uranium-235, and 97 percent uranium-238, by mass. During the fission reaction, the uranium-235 is consumed and fission products form. As the amount of uranium-235 decreases and the amounts of fission products increase, the fission process becomes less efficient. At some point, the spent nuclear fuel is removed and stored. Some of the radioactive fission products, because of their radioactivity and long half-lives, must be stored securely for thousands of years. Thus, nuclear waste management poses a tremendous challenge.

Scientists hope to someday use controlled nuclear fusion to produce energy. Nuclear fusion, which involves the coming together of light nuclei to form heavier ones, is the process by which stars generate energy. In order for nuclear fusion to occur, the nuclei must have extremely high temperatures. Research has focused on the fusion of deuterium (hydrogen-2) nuclei and tritium (hydrogen-3) nuclei, a process that requires about 50 million degrees Celsius. The principal renewable energy sources are biomass from crops such as trees and corn, hydropower from flowing rivers, geothermal power from heat stored in Earth, wind energy from the movement of winds, and solar energy from the Sun.

Wood is part of an array of plant matter referred to as biomass that can be burned to produce energy. The combustible substances in biomass are primarily carbohydrates (and of these, primarily cellulose). Cellulose, whose simplest or empirical formula is CH2O, undergoes combustion to form carbon dioxide and water. Wood fuels continue to be used in the rural areas of developing countries. Hydroelectric power is a well-developed energy source. Today, hydropower provides about 19 percent of the world’s electricity supply. Because it is a clean, renewable source of energy, hydropower should continue to serve as a vital energy source.

There has been a rapid growth in the use of wind turbines to generate electricity. In 2001 the amount of electricity generated in this way worldwide corresponded to the amount that would have been obtained from burning 15 million barrels of oil. Although this represents only about 0.05 percent of worldwide energy production in 2001, this fraction will increase. Solar energy is the most significant and promising renewable energy source. Solar energy is converted to electricity by solar cells (also known as photovoltaic cells). A great deal of solar energy is used currently in what is known as passive heating (which can be directly experienced as the heat gain in a greenhouse caused by sunlight). 

is carbon dioxide an organic or inorganic compound, and why?

sources are greatly appreciated

all Organic substances contain Carbon

therefore Carbon Dioxide should be organic

however as with other compounds they are the exceptions .. it is Inorganic

here this explains it better

http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/dec96/847927874.Bc.r.html

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning / Educational Video

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